Class 12 History – Chapter: Bhakti & Sufi
Traditions
Introduction to Bhakti &
Sufi Traditions
The Bhakti Movement and Sufi
Movement were important religious movements in medieval India. They
emphasized love, devotion, equality, and a direct relationship with God,
instead of only rituals and ceremonies.
- Bhakti means devotion (भक्ति) towards God.
- Sufism is the mystical tradition of Islam,
which teaches love, peace, and closeness to Allah.
Both movements:
- Opposed rigid caste discrimination.
- Promoted equality among people.
- Used local languages so that common people could
understand their teachings.
- Spread the message of love, tolerance, and
humanity.
What are the Sources to
Understand Bhakti and Sufi Traditions?
Historians use different types of
sources to study the Bhakti and Sufi traditions.
1. Literary Sources (Written
Compositions)
- Saints, poets, and scholars composed bhajans,
hymns, poems, and devotional songs.
- Most of these works were written in regional
(local) languages instead of Sanskrit.
- This made their teachings easy for ordinary people
to understand.
Examples
- Kabir's Dohas
- Mirabai's Bhajans
- Guru Nanak's Hymns
2. Musical Traditions
- Most devotional compositions were sung instead
of simply read.
- After the death of saints, their disciples and
followers collected these songs into books.
- Music became an important medium to spread
religious teachings.
3. Hagiographies (Biographies
of Saints)
Meaning
A Hagiography is the
biography of a saint written by his or her followers.
Features
- These books describe the life, miracles, teachings,
and devotion of saints.
- They often include miraculous events.
- They may not be completely historical, but they
help us understand:
- People's beliefs
- Religious practices
- Social conditions
- Importance of saints
Importance
Although not fully factual,
hagiographies show how people admired and followed saints.
India is a Mosaic of Religious
Beliefs and Practices
Meaning of Mosaic
A mosaic means a picture
made by joining many small pieces.
Similarly, India has:
- Different religions
- Different beliefs
- Different customs
- Different forms of worship
All these traditions together
form India's rich cultural heritage.
Integration of Various Cults
During medieval India, many local
religious traditions gradually became part of mainstream Hinduism.
This happened through two
important processes.
Process 1: Spread of
Brahmanical Ideas
Brahmins spread Hindu religious
beliefs by:
- Composing Puranas in simple Sanskrit.
- Making religious knowledge available to:
- Women
- Shudras
- Common people
Purpose
To spread Brahmanical traditions
among all sections of society.
Process 2: Acceptance of Local
Beliefs
The Brahmanas also accepted many
local customs.
They:
- Included local gods and goddesses in Hindu
traditions.
- Modified local beliefs instead of rejecting them.
- Combined local traditions with Puranic ideas.
This created harmony between
different religious communities.
Dialogue between Great and
Little Traditions
Religious traditions developed
through interaction between:
Great Tradition
- Sanskrit literature
- Vedas
- Puranas
- Brahmanical beliefs
Little Tradition
- Local customs
- Village gods and goddesses
- Folk traditions
- Tribal beliefs
Both influenced each other over
time.
Example: Jagannatha of Puri
One of the best examples of
religious integration is Jagannatha Temple at Puri (Odisha).
Facts
- Jagannatha means "Lord of the World."
- Jagannatha is considered a form of Lord Vishnu.
- Originally, Jagannatha may have been a local tribal
deity.
- Later he became one of the major Hindu deities.
This shows how local traditions
became part of mainstream Hinduism.
Integration of Goddess Cults
The worship of goddesses was
already common across India.
People worshipped:
- Stones
- Trees
- Natural objects
These symbols were often
decorated with:
- Red colour
- Yellow mud (turmeric)
How were Local Goddesses
Integrated?
Many local goddesses were
identified as wives of major Hindu gods.
Examples
|
Main God |
Goddess |
|
Vishnu |
Lakshmi |
|
Shiva |
Parvati |
|
Brahma |
Saraswati |
This helped local goddess worship
become part of the Puranic tradition.
Difference & Conflicts
between Cults and Traditions of Hinduism
Different religious traditions
did not always agree with each other.
The main traditions were:
- Tantric Practices
- Puranic Traditions
- Vedic Traditions
1. Tantric Practices
Features
- Did not always accept the authority of the Vedas.
- Worshipped powerful deities through special
rituals.
- Accepted both men and women equally.
- Ignored caste distinctions during rituals.
- Used meditation, mantras, and symbolic worship.
Important Point
Tantric practices were more
flexible than orthodox Vedic traditions.
2. Puranic Traditions
Features
- Based on the Puranas.
- Worship focused mainly on:
- Vishnu
- Shiva
- Goddess (Shakti)
- Followers believed that their chosen deity was the Supreme
God.
- Encouraged temple worship, festivals, and
devotional practices.
3. Vedic Traditions
Features
- Based on the authority of the Vedas.
- Main deities included:
- Agni (Fire God)
- Indra (God of Rain and Thunder)
- Soma
Worship Method
- Performed Yajnas (sacrifices).
- Chanted Vedic mantras with strict rules.
- Great importance was given to ritual purity and
accuracy.
Bhakti in Tantric Worship
Many Tantric traditions also
included devotional practices such as:
- Singing bhajans
- Chanting hymns
- Meditation
- Worship through music
These practices greatly
influenced:
- Vaishnavism (Worship of Vishnu)
- Shaivism (Worship of Shiva)
Conflict with Vedic Tradition
Many followers of the Vedic
tradition criticized Tantric practices because:
- They ignored some Vedic rules.
- Rituals were different from Vedic sacrifices.
- They gave less importance to Brahmin priests.
- They allowed participation regardless of caste or
gender.
Quick Revision Points (Exam
Ready)
- Bhakti means devotion to God.
- Sufism teaches love and closeness to Allah.
- Main sources: Devotional literature, songs, and
hagiographies.
- Hagiography = Biography of a saint written
by followers.
- India is called a mosaic because of its
diversity.
- Two processes of integration:
- Spread of Brahmanical ideas through Puranas.
- Acceptance of local beliefs by Brahmanas.
- Jagannatha of Puri is the best example of
integration.
- Local goddesses became Lakshmi, Parvati, and
Saraswati in Puranic tradition.
- Tantric tradition accepted women and ignored
caste barriers.
- Vedic tradition emphasized sacrifices and
Vedic rituals.
- Puranic tradition focused on devotion to
Vishnu, Shiva, and the Goddess.
One-Line NCERT Keywords
- Bhakti → Devotion to God.
- Sufism → Mystical tradition of Islam.
- Hagiography → Biography of a saint.
- Mosaic → Diversity of beliefs and practices.
- Great Tradition → Sanskritic/Puranic
tradition.
- Little Tradition → Local and folk
traditions.
- Jagannatha → Lord of the World (Vishnu).
- Tantra → Worship beyond Vedic rituals.
- Puranas → Religious texts in simple
Sanskrit.
- Vedic Tradition → Based on Vedas and
sacrifices.
Early Tradition of Bhakti in
Tamil Nadu
The earliest Bhakti movement
began in Tamil Nadu around the 6th century CE.
Its main aim was to spread love
and devotion towards God instead of focusing only on rituals and
sacrifices.
The two most important groups
were:
- Alvars – Devotees of Lord Vishnu
- Nayanars – Devotees of Lord Shiva
These saints spread the message
of Bhakti among common people by singing devotional songs in the Tamil
language.
Participation in Vedic
Practices
In the traditional Vedic
system, only certain groups of society could perform religious rituals.
Allowed to participate:
- Brahmins
- Kshatriyas
- Vaishyas
Not allowed:
- Shudras
- Untouchables (Dalits)
- Most women
Features of Vedic Worship
- Chanting long Vedic hymns.
- Performing elaborate Yajnas (sacrifices).
- Following strict religious rules.
The Bhakti movement challenged
these restrictions by opening the path of devotion to everyone.
Two Types of Bhakti Tradition
The Bhakti tradition is divided
into two main categories.
1. Saguna Bhakti (With Form)
Meaning
The worship of God in a visible
and personal form.
Devotees believed that God had a
physical form and could be worshipped through idols and images.
Main Deities
- Shiva
- Vishnu
- Rama
- Krishna
- Devi (Goddess)
Features
- Idol worship.
- Temple worship.
- Bhajans and Kirtans.
- Festivals and rituals.
2. Nirguna Bhakti (Without
Form)
Meaning
The worship of God without any
physical form.
God is considered:
- Formless
- Invisible
- Omnipresent
Features
- No idol worship.
- Focus on meditation and devotion.
- God is beyond name, shape, and form.
Examples
Later saints like Kabir
and Guru Nanak followed Nirguna Bhakti.
The Alvars
Meaning
The word Alvar means "one
who is immersed in devotion."
They were devoted followers of Lord
Vishnu.
Time Period
- Around 6th–9th century CE.
Main Work
- Travelled from village to village.
- Sang devotional hymns in Tamil.
- Spread the message of love and devotion.
Pilgrimage Centres
During their travels they
identified many sacred places dedicated to Vishnu.
Later:
- Large temples were built.
- These places became famous pilgrimage centres.
The Nayanars
Meaning
The word Nayanar means "leaders
devoted to Shiva."
Time Period
- Around 6th–9th century CE.
Main Work
- Worshipped Lord Shiva.
- Sang devotional hymns in Tamil.
- Visited Shiva temples across South India.
Like the Alvars, they helped
establish important pilgrimage centres.
Attitude Towards Caste
One of the greatest contributions
of the Alvars and Nayanars was their opposition to caste discrimination.
Their Views
- Everyone could worship God.
- Birth was less important than devotion.
- They challenged Brahmanical dominance.
- God loves all devotees equally.
Followers from Different
Backgrounds
Their followers belonged to
different sections of society, including:
- Farmers (Cultivators)
- Artisans
- Merchants
- Women
- Untouchables (Dalits)
This made the Bhakti movement
popular among common people.
Importance of Their
Compositions
The Alvars and Nayanars believed
that their devotional songs were as sacred as the Vedas.
Nalayira Divya Prabandham
- Collection of 4000 Tamil hymns of the
Alvars.
- Known as the "Tamil Veda."
Tevaram
- Collection of devotional hymns composed by the
Nayanars.
- Dedicated to Lord Shiva.
- One of the most important Shaiva texts.
Women Devotees
One of the most remarkable
features of the Bhakti movement was the active participation of women.
Women saints became respected
spiritual leaders.
Andal
Who was Andal?
- The only woman Alvar.
- One of the greatest devotees of Lord Vishnu.
Teachings
- Considered Vishnu as her beloved husband.
- Expressed deep love and devotion through beautiful
Tamil poems.
Importance
- Her hymns are still sung in temples across South
India.
Karaikkal Ammaiyar
Who was she?
- One of the earliest women devotees of Lord Shiva.
- One of the 63 famous Nayanars.
Features
- Lived a life of strict asceticism (austere
lifestyle).
- Renounced worldly pleasures.
- Dedicated her life completely to Shiva.
Her devotional poems became an
important part of the Nayanar tradition.
Relation with the State
The Bhakti movement received
strong support from South Indian rulers.
The major ruling dynasties were:
- Cholas
- Pallavas
- Pandyas
Religious Situation
Before the rise of Bhakti:
- Buddhism was influential.
- Jainism was also widespread.
The Alvars and Nayanars strongly
opposed these religions through their devotional hymns.
Reason
The competition was mainly for royal
patronage (support from kings).
Support from Chola Rulers
The Chola kings became great
supporters of the Bhakti movement.
They:
- Donated land to temples.
- Built magnificent temples.
- Encouraged Shaivism and Vaishnavism.
- Promoted Tamil devotional literature.
Famous Chola Temples
Some of the greatest Shiva
temples built under the Cholas include:
- Chidambaram Temple
- Brihadeeswara Temple, Thanjavur
- Gangaikondacholapuram Temple
These temples became important
religious and cultural centres.
Bronze Sculptures
During the Chola period:
- Beautiful bronze statues of Lord Shiva were
created.
- The famous Nataraja (Dancing Shiva)
sculpture belongs to this period.
- Chola bronze sculptures are considered masterpieces
of Indian art.
Support to Alvars and Nayanars
The Chola kings tried to gain the
support of popular Bhakti saints.
They:
- Honoured the saints.
- Built temples in their memory.
- Installed their statues.
- Organised religious festivals.
This increased both the
popularity of the saints and the authority of the rulers.
Tamil Hymns in Temples
The Chola rulers officially
introduced the singing of Tamil Shaiva hymns inside temples.
They also arranged these hymns
into a sacred collection called:
Tevaram
This gave Tamil devotional
literature official religious status.
Prantaka I
Contribution
The Chola ruler Prantaka I
installed bronze images of famous Shaiva saints in Shiva temples.
These included:
- Appar
- Sambandar
- Sundarar
Importance
- Their statues were carried in grand processions
during religious festivals.
- This increased public devotion and strengthened the
Bhakti movement.
Quick Revision Points (Exam
Ready)
- Early Bhakti Movement began in Tamil Nadu
(6th century CE).
- Alvars were devotees of Vishnu.
- Nayanars were devotees of Shiva.
- Saguna Bhakti = Worship of God with form
(idol worship).
- Nirguna Bhakti = Worship of formless God.
- Alvars and Nayanars opposed caste discrimination.
- Nalayira Divya Prabandham = Tamil Veda
(Alvar hymns).
- Tevaram = Collection of Nayanar hymns.
- Famous women saints:
- Andal (Vishnu devotee)
- Karaikkal Ammaiyar (Shiva devotee)
- Chola rulers supported the Bhakti movement by:
- Building temples
- Donating land
- Promoting Tamil hymns
- Installing statues of saints
- Famous Chola temples:
- Chidambaram
- Brihadeeswara (Thanjavur)
- Gangaikondacholapuram
- Prantaka I installed bronze images of Appar,
Sambandar, and Sundarar.
Important NCERT Keywords
- Alvars → Vishnu devotees.
- Nayanars → Shiva devotees.
- Saguna Bhakti → Worship of God with form.
- Nirguna Bhakti → Worship of the formless
God.
- Nalayira Divya Prabandham → Tamil Veda.
- Tevaram → Collection of Shaiva hymns.
- Andal → Woman Alvar.
- Karaikkal Ammaiyar → Woman Nayanar.
- Royal Patronage → Support given by kings to
religion.
- Prantaka I → Chola ruler who installed
bronze images of Bhakti saints.
The Virashaiva Tradition in
Karnataka
The Virashaiva (Lingayat)
Movement was an important Bhakti movement that began in Karnataka
during the 12th century CE.
It was started by Basavana
(Basavanna), who believed that true devotion to Lord Shiva was more
important than caste, rituals, and social discrimination.
The movement promoted equality,
social justice, and simple worship.
Founder – Basavana (Basavanna)
Who was Basavana?
- A Brahmin by birth.
- Earlier associated with Jainism.
- Served as a minister in the court of the Chalukya
king Bijjala I.
- One of the greatest social and religious reformers
of medieval India.
His Aim
Basavana wanted to:
- Remove caste discrimination.
- Oppose meaningless rituals.
- Give equal rights to all people.
- Promote devotion to Lord Shiva.
Virashaivas or Lingayats
The followers of Basavana were
called:
- Virashaivas (Heroes of Shiva)
- Lingayats (Wearers of the Linga)
Both names refer to the same
religious community.
Meaning of Lingayat
The word Lingayat means "one
who wears the Linga."
Worship
- They worship Lord Shiva in the form of a Linga.
- Every devotee wears a small Linga in a silver
case tied around the neck or over the left shoulder.
- This Linga reminds them that Shiva is always
present with them.
Importance of Jangamas
The Virashaiva tradition
respected Jangamas.
Who were Jangamas?
- Wandering monks or religious teachers.
- Spread Basavana's teachings.
- Guided people in spiritual life.
- Were highly respected by Lingayats.
Funeral Practices
Unlike most Hindus:
Lingayats do not perform
cremation.
Instead:
- They bury their dead.
Reason
They believe that after death,
the soul of a true devotee unites directly with Lord Shiva.
Opposition to the Caste System
Basavana strongly opposed:
- Caste discrimination.
- Untouchability.
- Social inequality.
His Beliefs
- All human beings are equal.
- No caste is superior or inferior.
- Everyone has the right to worship God.
This attracted many people who
had been neglected by the Brahmanical social order.
Opposition to the Theory of
Rebirth
The Lingayats questioned the
traditional Hindu belief in:
- Rebirth (Reincarnation)
Instead, they believed that a
true devotee would attain union with Shiva after death, making repeated
births unnecessary.
Social Reforms
The Virashaiva movement
introduced many progressive social reforms.
They encouraged:
- Post-puberty marriages (marriage after
attaining maturity).
- Widow remarriage.
- Equality for women.
- Rejection of social discrimination.
These reforms made the movement
popular among ordinary people.
Sources of Virashaiva
Tradition
Our knowledge about this movement
mainly comes from:
Vachanas
Meaning
- Short devotional sayings or poems.
Language
- Written in Kannada.
Importance
- Explain the teachings of Basavana.
- Promote devotion, equality, and social justice.
- Reject caste discrimination and ritualism.
Religious Ferment in North
India
The term Religious Ferment
means a period of religious change, debate, and new ideas.
During the medieval period, North
India experienced many religious movements that challenged traditional beliefs.
Religious Situation in North
India
Like South India:
- Vishnu and Shiva were widely worshipped.
- Temples received royal support.
- Kings donated land and wealth to temples.
However, historians have not
found devotional literature similar to the Tamil hymns of the Alvars and
Nayanars from this early period in North India.
Rise of Rajput States
After the early medieval period:
Many Rajput kingdoms
emerged across North India.
Features
- Brahmins enjoyed great influence.
- They performed:
- Religious rituals.
- Administrative duties.
- Ceremonies for kings.
As a result, the Brahmanical
social order became stronger.
Challenge to Brahmanical
Authority
Some religious groups opposed the
dominance of Brahmins.
Important groups included:
- Naths
- Jogis
- Siddhas
These groups promoted spiritual
knowledge through personal experience rather than rituals.
Who were the Naths, Jogis and
Siddhas?
Common Features
- Questioned the authority of the Vedas.
- Rejected elaborate rituals.
- Focused on meditation and yoga.
- Believed spiritual knowledge was more important
than birth.
Many of their followers came
from:
- Weavers
- Blacksmiths
- Potters
- Other artisan communities
Artisans and Trade
Many followers belonged to
artisan groups.
These artisans were connected
through long-distance trade with:
- Central Asia
- West Asia
As trade expanded, new ideas and
religious beliefs also spread.
Questioning the Authority of
the Vedas
Many new religious leaders
believed that:
- Devotion was more important than rituals.
- Every person could reach God directly.
- The authority of the Vedas should not be accepted
blindly.
They expressed these ideas in
local languages so ordinary people could understand them.
No Desire for Royal Patronage
Unlike some South Indian Bhakti
saints:
Many North Indian religious
leaders:
- Did not seek support from kings.
- Preferred independence.
- Focused on preaching among ordinary people.
Impact of the Turks and Delhi
Sultanate
The arrival of the Turks
and the establishment of the Delhi Sultanate brought major political
changes.
Effects
- Many Rajput kingdoms became weaker.
- The influence of Brahmins connected with these
kingdoms declined.
- This created opportunities for new religious
movements to grow.
As a result, Bhakti traditions
spread more widely among common people.
Quick Revision Points (Exam
Ready)
- Virashaiva Movement began in Karnataka.
- Founder: Basavana (Basavanna).
- Followers: Virashaivas or Lingayats.
- Lingayats worship Shiva in the form of a Linga.
- Jangamas were wandering monks.
- Lingayats bury their dead instead of
cremating them.
- They opposed:
- Caste system
- Untouchability
- Rebirth
- Supported:
- Widow remarriage
- Post-puberty marriage
- Equality
- Main source: Vachanas (Kannada devotional
poems).
- In North India:
- Rajput states emerged.
- Brahmins remained influential.
- Naths, Jogis, and Siddhas challenged
Brahmanical authority.
- Many followers were artisans and traders.
- New religious leaders questioned the authority of
the Vedas.
- The Delhi Sultanate weakened old political
and religious structures.
Important NCERT Keywords
- Basavana (Basavanna) → Founder of the
Virashaiva/Lingayat movement.
- Virashaiva → Hero of Shiva.
- Lingayat → Wearer of the Linga.
- Linga → Symbol of Lord Shiva.
- Jangama → Wandering monk.
- Vachanas → Kannada devotional writings.
- Religious Ferment → Period of religious
change and reform.
- Naths → Yogic religious sect.
- Jogis → Ascetics practicing yoga and
meditation.
- Siddhas → Mystics who emphasized spiritual
experience.
- Delhi Sultanate → Turkish rule in North
India that weakened many old kingdoms and changed the religious-political
landscape.
New Strands in the Fabric of
Islamic Traditions
The arrival and spread of Islam
introduced new religious, social, cultural, and political traditions in India.
Over time, these traditions mixed with local customs, creating a unique Indian
Islamic culture.
Islam spread to India through:
- Arab traders
- Military conquests
- Sufi saints
- Trade and cultural exchanges
Arrival of Islam in India
Arab Traders
Long before Muslim rulers
arrived, Arab merchants regularly visited India's western coast.
Time Period
- First Millennium CE
Main Areas
- Kerala (Malabar Coast)
- Gujarat
- Konkan Coast
Importance
- They traded spices, textiles, and other goods.
- They also introduced Islamic beliefs and culture
through peaceful contact.
Spread of Islam after the 7th
Century
In the 7th century CE,
Islam emerged in Arabia with Prophet Muhammad.
As Islam spread rapidly across
Asia and Africa, India's western coastal regions became connected with what
historians call the:
Islamic World
This increased:
- Trade
- Cultural exchange
- Religious interaction
Conquest of Sind (711 CE)
A major event in the history of
Islam in India was the conquest of Sind.
Muhammad bin Qasim
- Arab general.
- Invaded Sind in 711 CE.
- Defeated the local ruler.
- Sind became part of the Caliph's Empire.
Importance
This was the first Muslim
political rule in the Indian subcontinent.
Delhi Sultanate and Mughal
Empire
After the Arabs:
Turks and Afghans
- Established the Delhi Sultanate in 1206
CE.
- Ruled large parts of North India.
Later,
Mughals
- Founded the Mughal Empire in 1526 CE.
- Expanded Muslim political rule across much of
India.
Role of the Ulama
Who were the Ulama?
The Ulama were Islamic
scholars and theologians.
Functions
They:
- Studied the Quran and Hadith.
- Explained Islamic laws.
- Advised Muslim rulers.
- Guided judges and administrators on religious
matters.
They were considered experts in
Islamic law.
Sharia (Islamic Law)
Meaning
Sharia is the religious
law followed by Muslims.
Sources
Sharia is based on:
- Quran (Holy Book of Islam)
- Hadith (Teachings and sayings of Prophet
Muhammad)
Purpose
It guides Muslims in matters such
as:
- Worship
- Marriage
- Family life
- Business
- Justice
- Daily conduct
Muslim rulers were expected to
govern according to Sharia.
The Popular Practice of Islam
Islam gradually spread among
different sections of Indian society.
Followers included:
- Peasants
- Artisans
- Merchants
- Warriors
- Traders
Many people accepted Islam
because of:
- Equality
- Simplicity of worship
- Influence of Sufi saints
- Trade contacts
Five Pillars of Islam
Every Muslim is expected to
follow the Five Pillars of Islam.
1. Shahada (Faith)
Meaning
Declaration of faith.
"There is no God except
Allah, and Muhammad is His Messenger."
This is the foundation of Islam.
2. Salat (Namaz)
Meaning
Offering prayers.
Rule
- Pray five times every day facing Mecca.
Purpose:
- Strengthen the relationship with Allah.
3. Zakat
Meaning
Giving charity to the poor.
Importance
- Helps needy people.
- Promotes equality.
- Purifies wealth.
4. Sawm
Meaning
Fasting during the month of Ramzan
(Ramadan).
Purpose
- Self-discipline.
- Spiritual purification.
- Understanding the suffering of the poor.
5. Hajj
Meaning
Pilgrimage to Mecca.
Rule
Every financially and physically
able Muslim should perform Hajj at least once in life.
The Khojahs
Who were the Khojahs?
The Khojahs were followers
of the Ismaili branch of Shia Islam.
Features
- Composed devotional poems.
- Used many regional languages:
- Punjabi
- Multani
- Sindhi
- Kachchi
- Hindi
- Gujarati
Worship
Their devotional songs were sung
in special ragas during daily prayer meetings.
This shows how Islamic traditions
mixed with Indian cultural practices.
Arab Traders on the Malabar
Coast
Many Arab Muslim traders settled
permanently on the Malabar Coast (Kerala).
They adopted:
- The local language Malayalam.
- Indian customs and traditions.
This shows cultural interaction
between Arabs and Indians.
Matriliny and Matrilocal
Residence
Arab Muslims in Kerala adopted
local family customs.
Matriliny
Meaning
Property and family lineage
passed through the mother's side instead of the father's side.
Matrilocal Residence
Meaning
After marriage, the husband lived
in the wife's family home.
These customs were common in
Kerala and were accepted by many Muslim communities there.
Architecture of Mosques
Mosques across the world share
some common features but also show local influences.
Universal Features of Mosques
1. Orientation towards Mecca
Every mosque is built facing Mecca,
the holiest city of Islam.
2. Mihrab
Meaning
A Mihrab is a niche in the
wall of a mosque.
Function
It indicates the direction (Qibla)
towards Mecca for prayer.
3. Minbar
Meaning
A raised platform or pulpit.
Function
The Imam delivers sermons
(Khutba) from the Minbar, especially during Friday prayers.
Regional Variations
Although mosques followed basic
Islamic principles, they also reflected local traditions.
Differences included:
- Roofing styles.
- Building materials.
- Decorative designs.
- Local architecture.
Example
- Kerala mosques often had sloping wooden roofs,
influenced by traditional Kerala architecture rather than Middle Eastern
designs.
This shows the blending of
Islamic and Indian architectural traditions.
Quick Revision Points (Exam
Ready)
- Islam came to India through Arab traders,
conquests, trade, and Sufi saints.
- Arab traders visited the western coast
during the first millennium CE.
- Muhammad bin Qasim conquered Sind in 711
CE.
- Delhi Sultanate was established by Turks
and Afghans.
- Mughal Empire was founded in 1526 CE.
- Ulama = Scholars of Islamic law.
- Sharia = Islamic law based on the Quran
and Hadith.
- Islam spread among:
- Peasants
- Merchants
- Artisans
- Warriors
- Five Pillars of Islam:
1.
Shahada
2.
Salat
3.
Zakat
4.
Sawm
5.
Hajj
- Khojahs belonged to the Ismaili (Shia)
sect.
- Arab Muslims in Kerala adopted:
- Malayalam language
- Matriliny
- Matrilocal residence
- Important parts of a mosque:
- Mihrab → Prayer niche showing the direction
of Mecca.
- Minbar → Pulpit for delivering sermons.
Important NCERT Keywords
- Muhammad bin Qasim → Conqueror of Sind (711
CE).
- Caliph → Political and religious leader of
the Islamic world.
- Delhi Sultanate → Turkish-Afghan rule in
North India.
- Mughal Empire → Muslim empire established in
1526 CE.
- Ulama → Islamic scholars.
- Sharia → Islamic law.
- Quran → Holy book of Islam.
- Hadith → Sayings and actions of Prophet
Muhammad.
- Shahada → Declaration of faith.
- Salat → Five daily prayers.
- Zakat → Charity.
- Sawm → Fasting in Ramadan.
- Hajj → Pilgrimage to Mecca.
- Khojahs → Ismaili Shia community.
- Mihrab → Prayer niche facing Mecca.
- Minbar → Pulpit in a mosque.
- Matriliny → Descent through the mother's
line.
- Matrilocal Residence → Husband lives in the
wife's home after marriage.
Different Names of the Muslim
Community
In medieval India, the words "Muslim"
or "Musalman" were rarely used before the 14th century.
Instead, people were identified
by their place of origin or ethnic background.
Names Used for Different
Muslim Communities
|
Name |
Meaning |
|
Turushka |
Turks |
|
Tajika |
People from Tajikistan |
|
Parashika |
People from Persia (Iran) |
|
Shakas |
Term used for some Turks and
Afghans |
|
Yavanas |
Another term used for foreign
groups, including Muslims |
|
Mlechchha |
General term for foreigners who
did not follow caste rules or speak Sanskrit-derived languages |
Important Point
The term Mlechchha did not
refer only to Muslims. It was broadly used for foreigners who:
- Did not observe the Hindu caste system.
- Spoke foreign languages.
The Growth of Sufism
What is Sufism?
Sufism is the mystical
branch of Islam.
Sufis believed that the best way
to reach God was through:
- Love
- Devotion
- Simplicity
- Meditation
- Service to humanity
Rather than through only rituals.
Origin of Sufism
In the early centuries of Islam:
Some deeply religious Muslims
became unhappy with:
- Luxury.
- Material wealth.
- Political corruption in the Caliphate.
As a result, they adopted:
- Asceticism (simple life)
- Mysticism (spiritual experience)
These people became known as Sufis.
Criticism of the Ulama
The Sufis criticised the Ulama
because they believed:
- Religion should not be limited to legal rules.
- True religion comes from love of God, not
merely bookish knowledge.
- Personal spiritual experience is more important
than formal rituals.
Aim of Sufis
The main goal of Sufism was:
- To attain salvation through:
- Love of Allah.
- Devotion.
- Following the teachings of Prophet Muhammad.
Khanqahs and Silsilas
Khanqah
Meaning
A Khanqah was a Sufi
monastery or hospice where Sufis lived, prayed, taught, and served people.
It became the centre of religious
and social life.
Sheikh (Pir)
The head of the Khanqah was
called the:
- Sheikh
- Pir
Duties
- Guided disciples.
- Taught spiritual knowledge.
- Solved people's problems.
- Led prayers and discussions.
Murids
Meaning
Disciples or followers of the
Sheikh.
They learned spiritual discipline
from their master.
Khalifa
Meaning
The chief disciple selected by
the Sheikh as his successor.
After the Sheikh's death, the
Khalifa continued his teachings.
Silsila
Meaning
The word Silsila means "Chain."
It refers to the continuous
spiritual lineage from:
Allah → Prophet Muhammad →
Sufi Saints → Sheikh → Murids (Disciples)
Importance
Through the Silsila:
- Spiritual knowledge.
- Blessings (Barakat).
- Religious teachings.
were passed from one generation
to another.
Ziyarat and Dargah
Dargah
When a famous Sufi saint died:
- He was buried in a Dargah (Tomb Shrine).
The Dargah became a place of
devotion.
Ziyarat
Meaning
Pilgrimage to the tomb of a Sufi
saint.
Purpose
People visited Dargahs to:
- Seek blessings (Barakat).
- Pray for good health.
- Fulfil wishes.
- Gain spiritual peace.
Urs
Meaning
The death anniversary of a Sufi
saint.
The word Urs means "Marriage."
Why is it called Marriage?
Because Sufis believed that on
death:
The soul of the saint becomes
united with Allah.
Therefore, Urs is celebrated as a
joyful spiritual union.
Be-Sharia and Ba-Sharia Sufis
Sufis were broadly divided into
two groups.
1. Be-Sharia Sufis
Meaning
Sufis who did not strictly
follow Sharia.
Features
- Lived as wandering monks.
- Practised extreme asceticism.
- Ignored many formal rituals.
- Remained unmarried (celibacy).
Famous Groups
- Qalandars
- Madaris
- Malangs
- Haidaris
2. Ba-Sharia Sufis
Meaning
Sufis who followed Sharia.
Features
- Lived in Khanqahs.
- Observed Islamic laws.
- Followed regular prayers and religious practices.
The Chishti Tradition
The Chishti Silsila became
the most famous Sufi order in India.
Its greatest saints include:
- Khwaja Muinuddin Chishti
- Qutbuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki
- Baba Farid
- Nizamuddin Auliya
The Khanqah as a Centre of
Social Life
The Khanqah was much more than a
religious centre.
It included:
- Small rooms.
- A large prayer hall (Jama'at Khana).
- Courtyard.
- Veranda.
- Boundary wall.
- Kitchen (Langar).
Langar
Meaning
A community kitchen.
Features
- Food was prepared for everyone.
- Rich and poor ate together.
- Expenses were met through Futuh.
Futuh
Meaning
Voluntary donations given without
being asked.
The Chishti saints never demanded
money.
People donated willingly.
Visitors to the Khanqah
People from every section of
society visited.
Including:
- Kings.
- Soldiers.
- Merchants.
- Slaves.
- Poets.
- Travellers.
- Rich.
- Poor.
- Hindu Yogis.
- Qalandars.
They came for:
- Blessings.
- Healing.
- Spiritual guidance.
- Amulets.
Assimilation of Local
Traditions
The Chishtis adopted several
Indian customs.
Examples:
- Bowing before the Sheikh.
- Offering water to visitors.
- Shaving the heads of new disciples.
This helped Sufism become popular
among Indians.
Spread of the Chishti Order
Sheikh Nizamuddin Auliya
appointed many successors.
These disciples established new
Khanqahs across India.
As a result:
- Chishti teachings spread rapidly.
- More people became followers.
Ziyarat
Pilgrimage to Sufi shrines became
popular throughout the Islamic world.
People believed that saints
possessed:
Barakat
Meaning:
Divine blessings or spiritual
power.
Dargah of Khwaja Muinuddin
Chishti
The most famous Chishti shrine
is:
📍 Ajmer Sharif Dargah
(Rajasthan)
Khwaja Muinuddin Chishti
Popularly called:
"Gharib Nawaz"
(Benefactor of the Poor)
Royal Patronage
Many rulers visited Ajmer.
Muhammad bin Tughlaq
- First Sultan known to visit the shrine.
Ghiyasuddin Khalji (Malwa)
- Built one of the earliest structures over the tomb.
Akbar
Visited Ajmer 14 times.
Reasons:
- Victory in wars.
- Fulfilment of vows.
- Birth of sons.
- Seeking blessings.
Qawwali
Meaning
Devotional music sung in Sufi
shrines.
Purpose:
To create spiritual ecstasy and
devotion.
Zikr
Meaning
Repeated remembrance of Allah by
chanting His names.
Sama
Meaning
Listening to mystical music to
experience closeness to God.
Contribution of Amir Khusrau
Amir Khusrau was:
- Great poet.
- Musician.
- Disciple of Nizamuddin Auliya.
Contributions
- Developed Qawwali.
- Introduced Qaul.
Qaul
A devotional hymn sung at the
beginning or end of Qawwali.
It is still performed at
Nizamuddin Auliya's Dargah.
Languages and Communication
Unlike the Ulama who preferred
Arabic and Persian,
Sufis used local languages.
Examples:
- Hindavi.
- Punjabi.
- Dakhani.
- Urdu.
- Kannada.
This made their teachings
understandable to ordinary people.
Baba Farid
- Composed verses in Punjabi.
- His hymns were later included in the Guru Granth
Sahib.
Malik Muhammad Jayasi
Famous for:
Padmavat
A love story of:
- Rani Padmini.
- Ratansen.
The story symbolises divine
love through human love.
Dakhani Literature
In Bijapur (Karnataka),
Chishti Sufis composed:
- Household songs.
- Lullabies (Lorinama).
- Wedding songs (Shadinama).
Many were sung by women while
doing household work.
Influence of Bhakti
The Sufis of South India were
influenced by:
- Kannada Vachanas of the Lingayats.
- Marathi Abhangas of the saints of
Pandharpur.
This shows the interaction
between Bhakti and Sufi traditions.
Sufis and Their Relations with
the State
The relationship between Sufis
and rulers was generally cooperative but sometimes tense.
Royal Support
Sultans gave:
- Cash donations.
- Tax-free land (Inam).
- Religious endowments (Auqaf).
Use of Donations
Sufis spent donations immediately
on:
- Food.
- Clothes.
- Housing.
- Helping the poor.
They did not accumulate wealth.
This increased people's respect
for them.
Popularity of Sufis
People believed Sufi saints had
miraculous powers because of:
- Simplicity.
- Scholarship.
- Piety.
- Spiritual blessings.
Thus, people from every religion
visited their Dargahs.
Sufis and Political Legitimacy
The Delhi Sultans wanted support
from Sufis because:
- Sufis were respected by the public.
- Their blessings increased a ruler's legitimacy.
- They were believed to intercede with Allah on
behalf of people.
Tombs Near Dargahs
Many kings wanted their own tombs
near Sufi shrines.
Reason:
They believed that being close to
a saint would bring them spiritual blessings.
Conflicts Between Sultans and
Sufis
Relations were not always
peaceful.
Sometimes:
- Kings expected Sufis to bow before them.
- Sufis refused because they bowed only before Allah.
This led to occasional conflicts.
Titles Given to Sufis
Some famous Sufis received
honorary titles.
Example:
Sultan-ul-Mashaikh
Meaning:
"Leader of the Sufi
Masters."
Quick Revision Points (Exam
Ready)
- Before the 14th century, Muslims were
identified by their region, not by the terms "Muslim" or
"Musalman".
- Turushka = Turks, Tajika = Tajiks, Parashika
= Persians, Mlechchha = Foreigners outside caste norms.
- Sufism emphasizes love, devotion,
simplicity, and closeness to Allah.
- Khanqah = Sufi hospice.
- Sheikh/Pir = Spiritual master.
- Murid = Disciple.
- Khalifa = Successor.
- Silsila = Spiritual chain from Allah →
Prophet Muhammad → Sufi saints → disciples.
- Dargah = Tomb of a Sufi saint.
- Ziyarat = Pilgrimage to a Dargah.
- Urs = Death anniversary of a saint (symbolic
union with God).
- Be-Sharia = Did not strictly follow Sharia.
- Ba-Sharia = Followed Sharia.
- Langar = Community kitchen.
- Futuh = Voluntary charity.
- Barakat = Divine blessings.
- Khwaja Muinuddin Chishti = "Gharib
Nawaz", Ajmer Sharif.
- Akbar visited Ajmer 14 times.
- Amir Khusrau developed Qawwali and
introduced Qaul.
- Baba Farid's verses appear in the Guru
Granth Sahib.
- Malik Muhammad Jayasi wrote Padmavat.
- Auqaf = Religious endowments.
- Inam = Tax-free land grants.
- Sultan-ul-Mashaikh = Leader of Sufi masters.
Important NCERT Keywords
- Turushka → Turks
- Tajika → People from Tajikistan
- Parashika → Persians
- Mlechchha → Foreigners outside caste norms
- Sufism → Mystical tradition of Islam
- Khanqah → Sufi hospice
- Sheikh (Pir) → Spiritual master
- Murid → Disciple
- Khalifa → Successor
- Silsila → Spiritual lineage
- Dargah → Tomb shrine of a Sufi saint
- Ziyarat → Pilgrimage to a Dargah
- Urs → Death anniversary of a saint
- Barakat → Spiritual blessing
- Langar → Community kitchen
- Futuh → Voluntary charity
- Be-Sharia → Sufis not strictly following
Sharia
- Ba-Sharia → Sufis following Sharia
- Khwaja Muinuddin Chishti → Gharib Nawaz,
founder of the Chishti order in India
- Nizamuddin Auliya → Famous Chishti saint of
Delhi
- Amir Khusrau → Poet, musician, disciple of
Nizamuddin Auliya
- Qawwali → Sufi devotional music
- Qaul → Opening/closing hymn in Qawwali
- Zikr → Remembrance of Allah
- Sama → Mystical musical assembly
- Padmavat → Sufi allegorical poem by Malik
Muhammad Jayasi
- Auqaf → Religious charitable trusts
- Inam → Tax-free land grant
- Sultan-ul-Mashaikh → Honorary title meaning
"Leader of the Sufi Masters".
Teachings of Kabir
Who was Kabir?
Kabir was one of the greatest
Bhakti saints and poet-saints of North India. He lived during the 15th
century and spread the message of love, equality, and devotion to one
formless God (Nirguna Bhakti).
Early Life
- Born in a Hindu family (according to
tradition).
- Brought up by a poor Muslim weaver (Julaha)
family.
- Belonged to the weaver community (Julahas).
- Was greatly influenced by Guru Ramananda.
Kabir combined the best teachings
of both Hinduism and Islam.
Teachings of Kabir
Kabir strongly opposed:
- Caste discrimination.
- Idol worship.
- Empty rituals.
- Religious hypocrisy.
- Blind faith.
He believed:
- God is one.
- God has no form (Nirguna).
- Love and devotion are the true paths to God.
- Hindus and Muslims worship the same God using
different names.
- A true Guru is essential for spiritual knowledge.
- Good deeds are more important than rituals.
Kabir's Literary Works
Kabir himself did not write
books.
His followers collected his poems
after his death.
1. Kabir Bijak
- Sacred book of the Kabir Panth.
- Popular in Varanasi and Uttar Pradesh.
2. Kabir Granthavali
- Preserved by the Dadupanth in Rajasthan.
3. Adi Granth Sahib
Many of Kabir's hymns were also
included in the Adi Granth (Guru Granth Sahib).
This shows the respect he
received across different religious communities.
Language of Kabir
Kabir composed poems in:
- Hindi
- Awadhi
- Bhojpuri
- Braj
- Other regional dialects
Many poems were written in the
special language called:
Sant Bhasha
A simple language used by Nirguna
Bhakti saints.
This helped ordinary people
understand his teachings.
Ulatbansi
Meaning
Ulatbansi means "upside-down
sayings."
Features
Kabir used paradoxes and symbolic
language.
He often reversed the ordinary
meaning of words to explain deep spiritual truths.
These poems encourage readers to
think deeply.
Names Used by Kabir for God
Kabir believed that God is one,
but people call Him by different names.
Islamic Terms
- Allah
- Khuda
- Pir
- Hazrat
Vedantic (Hindu) Terms
- Brahman
- Atman
- Alakh (The Unseen)
- Nirakar (Formless)
Yogic Terms
- Shabda (Divine Sound)
- Shunya (Emptiness)
This shows that Kabir accepted
ideas from many religious traditions.
Kabir and Ramananda
Tradition says that Ramananda
was Kabir's Guru.
However,
Historians believe that there is no
definite historical proof that Kabir and Ramananda lived at the same time.
Kabir's poems mention:
- Guru
- Satguru
But they do not mention
Ramananda by name.
Quick Revision Points (Kabir)
- Kabir was a Nirguna Bhakti saint.
- Raised by a Muslim Julaha family.
- Tradition says he was a disciple of Ramananda.
- Opposed caste, idol worship, and rituals.
- Believed in one formless God.
- Main collections:
- Kabir Bijak
- Kabir Granthavali
- Adi Granth Sahib
- Wrote in Sant Bhasha.
- Used Ulatbansi to express spiritual ideas.
Life & Teachings of Baba
Guru Nanak
Who was Guru Nanak?
Guru Nanak (1469–1539 CE) was the
founder of Sikhism and one of India's greatest spiritual teachers.
He preached:
- Equality
- Humanity
- Brotherhood
- Devotion to one God
Birth and Early Life
- Born in a Hindu Khatri (merchant) family.
- Birthplace:
Nankana Sahib (now in Pakistan). - Located near the River Ravi.
Education
Guru Nanak:
- Learned Persian.
- Trained as an accountant.
Although married at a young age,
he devoted most of his life to spirituality.
Travels (Udasis)
Guru Nanak travelled widely
across:
- India
- Tibet
- Sri Lanka
- Arabia
- Central Asia
During these journeys, he met:
- Sufis
- Saints
- Yogis
- Religious scholars
Teachings of Guru Nanak
Guru Nanak believed:
- God is one.
- God has no form or gender.
- All human beings are equal.
- Honest work is essential.
- Share with others.
- Remember God's name.
Opposition to Rituals
Guru Nanak rejected:
- Animal sacrifices.
- Ritual baths.
- Idol worship.
- Extreme austerities.
- Blind faith.
- Religious divisions.
He also questioned the scriptures
of both Hindus and Muslims when they encouraged empty rituals.
Concept of God
Guru Nanak called God:
Rab
According to him:
- God has no form.
- God has no gender.
- God is everywhere.
Shabad
Guru Nanak expressed his
teachings through:
Shabad (Hymns)
These hymns were:
- Written in Punjabi.
- Sung in different Ragas.
Mardana
Guru Nanak's companion was:
Bhai Mardana
He accompanied Guru Nanak during
his travels and played the:
Rabab
while Guru Nanak sang hymns.
Sangat
Guru Nanak organised his
followers into:
Sangat
Meaning:
A community gathering for:
- Prayer.
- Singing hymns.
- Spiritual discussions.
Everyone participated equally.
Guru Tradition
Before his death,
Guru Nanak appointed:
Guru Angad
as his successor.
This tradition continued through 10
Gurus.
Formation of Sikhism
Guru Nanak did not intend to
create a separate religion.
However,
After his death,
His followers gradually developed
their own identity.
Thus, Sikhism emerged as a
distinct religion.
Adi Granth
The 5th Guru Arjan Dev
compiled:
- Guru Nanak's hymns.
- Hymns of the next four Gurus.
- Compositions of:
- Kabir
- Baba Farid
- Ravidas
This collection became the:
Adi Granth
Guru Granth Sahib
The 10th Guru Gobind Singh
added:
- Hymns of Guru Tegh Bahadur.
The scripture was then declared
as:
Guru Granth Sahib
The eternal Guru of the Sikhs.
Khalsa Panth
Guru Gobind Singh founded:
Khalsa Panth (1699)
Meaning:
"The Community of the
Pure."
Five Ks (Five Symbols of
Khalsa)
|
Symbol |
Meaning |
|
Kesh |
Uncut hair |
|
Kirpan |
Dagger |
|
Kachh |
Shorts |
|
Kangha |
Comb |
|
Kara |
Steel bangle |
Importance of Guru Gobind
Singh
He transformed the Sikh community
into a:
- Religious force.
- Social force.
- Military force.
Quick Revision Points (Guru
Nanak)
- Founder of Sikhism.
- Born at Nankana Sahib.
- Believed in one formless God.
- Rejected rituals and caste.
- Wrote Shabads in Punjabi.
- Companion: Bhai Mardana (Rabab player).
- Started Sangat.
- Successor: Guru Angad.
- Guru Arjan compiled the Adi Granth.
- Guru Gobind Singh completed the Guru
Granth Sahib and founded the Khalsa.
Mirabai – The Devotee Princess
Who was Mirabai?
Mirabai was one of the greatest
women Bhakti poets of medieval India.
She was a devoted follower of Lord
Krishna.
Early Life
- Rajput princess of Marwar.
- Married to the prince of Mewar.
However,
She devoted her life entirely to
Krishna.
Devotion to Krishna
Mirabai believed:
Krishna was her:
- Husband.
- Friend.
- Beloved.
She refused to follow the
traditional role of a queen.
Conflict with Family
Her in-laws opposed her devotion.
According to tradition:
- They tried to poison her.
- She survived.
- Left the palace.
She spent the rest of her life as
a wandering saint.
Association with Raidas
Some traditions state that:
Her Guru was:
Raidas (Ravidas)
A leatherworker by caste.
This challenged caste
discrimination.
Life of Renunciation
Mirabai left palace comforts.
She wore:
- White clothes of a widow.
or
- Saffron robes of a saint.
She travelled while singing
devotional songs.
Importance
Although she did not establish
any religious sect,
Her Bhajans continue to inspire
millions.
They remain popular especially
in:
- Rajasthan.
- Gujarat.
Quick Revision Points
(Mirabai)
- Rajput princess of Marwar.
- Married into Mewar.
- Devotee of Krishna.
- Left palace life.
- Tradition links her Guru with Raidas.
- Opposed caste and social restrictions.
- Famous for devotional Bhajans.
Varieties of Sources to
Reconstruct the History of Sufi Tradition
Historians use many literary
sources to study Sufism.
1. Manuals
Books explaining:
- Sufi beliefs.
- Spiritual practices.
- Rules of conduct.
2. Malfuzat
Meaning
Collections of:
- Conversations.
- Sermons.
- Teachings.
of Sufi saints.
These were written by disciples.
3. Maktubat
Meaning
Collections of letters written
by:
Sufi masters
to
their disciples.
These explain spiritual guidance.
4. Tazkiras
Meaning
Biographical accounts of Sufi
saints.
These describe:
- Their lives.
- Teachings.
- Miracles.
- Spiritual achievements.
Quick Revision Points (Sources
of Sufism)
- Manuals → Sufi rules and practices.
- Malfuzat → Recorded conversations of Sufi
saints.
- Maktubat → Letters written by Sufi masters.
- Tazkiras → Biographies of Sufi saints.
Important NCERT Keywords
- Kabir → Nirguna Bhakti saint.
- Kabir Bijak → Sacred text of the Kabir
Panth.
- Kabir Granthavali → Collection preserved by
the Dadupanth.
- Sant Bhasha → Language of Nirguna saints.
- Ulatbansi → Inverted mystical sayings.
- Ramananda → Traditionally regarded as
Kabir's Guru.
- Guru Nanak → Founder of Sikhism.
- Shabad → Hymns composed by Guru Nanak.
- Bhai Mardana → Companion of Guru Nanak,
played the Rabab.
- Sangat → Congregation of Sikh followers.
- Adi Granth → Compiled by Guru Arjan.
- Guru Granth Sahib → Eternal Guru of the
Sikhs.
- Khalsa Panth → Founded by Guru Gobind Singh.
- Five Ks → Kesh, Kangha, Kara, Kirpan, Kachh.
- Mirabai → Devotee of Krishna and famous
Bhakti poet.
- Raidas (Ravidas) → Bhakti saint
traditionally associated with Mirabai.
- Malfuzat → Conversations of Sufi saints.
- Maktubat → Letters of Sufi masters.
- Tazkiras → Biographies of Sufi saints.
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